Feb

2

O’ Malley’s classification of Language Learning strategies

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O’ Malley proposed a three-part strategy taxonomy:

Meta-cognitive strategies are strategies which involve “knowing about learning, and controlling learning through planning, monitoring and evaluating the learning activity”(O’Malley 1988:422). Among the main meta-cognitive strategies, it is possible to include advance organizers, directed attention, selective attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, self-evaluation.

Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve the manipulation or transformation of the material to be learned. Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing are among the most important cognitive strategies.

Socio-affective strategies , it can be stated that they are related with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question for clarification are the main socio-affective strategies (Brown 1987:93-94).

Jan

25

Oxford’s classification of Language Learning Strategies

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In view of Oxford there is no taxonomy or classification system, the researcher prefers to use the word ‘system’ since it “implies a clear set of hierarchical relationships” (Oxford 1990: 239) and terms it a New System Of Language Learning Strategies. She claims that her system is more comprehensible, detailed and more systematic in “linking individual strategies, as well as strategy groups, with each of the four language skills. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes: direct and indirect, further subdivided into six groups:

which are subdivided into a total of 19 strategy sets and the whole strategy system incorporates 62 strategies.

Direct strategies directly involve the target language such as reviewing and practicing:

Memory Strategies.

Cognitive Strategies.

Compensation strategies.

Indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning such as planning, co-operating and seeking opportunities:
Meta-cognitive Strategies

Affective Strategies.

Social Strategies.

Jan

20

Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies

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Rubin, one of the first researchers and pioneers in the field, (1981:124-126) identified two kinds of learning strategies: those contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. She classified language learning strategies into three groups:

Learner strategies “contribute to the development of the language system and affect learning directly” (Rubin 1987:23) and they are further categorized into cognitive (these require direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning materials) and meta-cognitive strategies (these are used to supervise, control or self-direct language learning). Cognitive strategies are divided into: clarification/verification, deductive reasoning (learner quests for and uses more general rules), guessing/inductive inferencing (learner uses gained knowledge to acquire explicit concepts/assumptions about a specific linguistic form or meaning), memorization (here emphasis is on the storage and retrieval processes – mnemonic strategies, repetition and drill), monitoring and practice ( focus is on the fidelity of the reproduction – repetition, experimentation, rehearsal, application of rules, imitation). Meta-cognitive learning strategies involve such processes as planning, prioritizing, setting goals and self-management or simply evaluating the best ways of study.

According to Rubin, Communication Strategies are less related to learning strategies since their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker intended. They are used to overcome difficulties in understanding occurring during the communication process.

Social Strategies are described as activities giving students opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge (they include: initiating conversations and listening to L2 media) , however, they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving and using of language.

Jan

4

Definition of Language Learning Strategies

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1. Stern 1983 ‘In our view strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior.’
2. Weinstein and Mayer 1986 ‘Learning strategies are the behaviors and thoughts that learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process’.
3. Chamot 1987 ‘Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information’.
4. Rubin 1987 ‘ Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly’.
5. Oxford

1.1989

2.1990

 1.‘Language learning strategies are behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-direct and enjoyable’.

2. ‘The strategy concept [...] has come to mean as plan, set or conscious action toward achievement of an objective. They are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations’.
6. Tarone 1980 ‘Learning strategies are concerned with the learners’ attempts to master new linguistic and socio-linguistic information about the target language’.
7. O’Malley and Chamot 1990 ‘The special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new information.
8. Rubin 1987 ‘Any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information’.
9. Cohen 1998 ‘Learning strategies are processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in action taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or foreign language, through the storage, retention, recall and application of information about the language.

According to Ellis (1994), “the concept of ‘strategy’ is somewhat fuzzy one, [...] not easy to tie down” (Ellis 1994:529) and brings to light many problems. On the basis of a wide variety of definitions by many researchers, Ellis states that it is open to question whether learning strategies are recognized as behavioral, mental or as both. Oxford (1989), on the other hand, appears to see them as essentially behavioral, whereas Weinstein and Mayer (1986) describe them as both behavioral and mental.

Another difficulty emphasized by Ellis is the nature of the behaviors classified as learning strategies. As stated by Stern (Ellis 1994), there is a distinction between ’strategies’, which are defined as approaches to learning, and ‘techniques’, which are observable forms of learning (e.g. grammar or vocabulary). Other researchers (Ellis 1994), however, may refer to techniques as strategies and vice versa, which may further complicate terminology.

Another point raised by Ellis (1994) is whether learning strategies are to be viewed as conscious and therefore intentional or subconscious and unintentional. Most investigators in this area of research have not considered this issue, with the exception of Chamot (1987) who believes that learning strategies are deliberate actions.

The fourth problem mentioned by Ellis examines whether learning strategies are viewed as having a direct or indirect impact on interlanguage development. Various scholars (Ellis 1994) regard them as having an indirect influence, which is an opposite view to that adopted by Rubin (1987).


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