Schmitt (1997: 207-208) categorized vocabulary learning strategies into six main groups with 58 individual strategies in total:

DISCOV-DET : analyze part of speech, affixes and roots, check for L1 cognate, analyze pictures and gestures, guess from textual context, bilingual dictionary, monolingual dictionary, word lists, flash cards.

DISCOV-SOC : ask teacher for L1 translation, ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of new word, ask teacher for a sentence including new word, ask classmates for meaning, discover new meaning through group work activity.

CONS-SOC : study and practice meaning in a group, teacher checks students’ flashcards or word lists for accuracy, interact with native speakers.

CONS-MEM : study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning, image word’s meaning, connect word to a personal experience, associate the word with its coordinates, connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms, use semantic maps, use ‘scales’ for gradable adjectives, pegword method, loci method, group words together: to study them spatially on page, use new word in sentences, group words together within a storyline, study word spelling, study sound of word, say word aloud, image of word form, underline initial letter, configuration, use keyword method, affixes and roots/parts of speech, paraphrase word meaning, use cognates in study, learn words of an idiom together, use physical action, use semantic feature grids.

CONS-COG : verbal/written repetition, word lists, flash cards, note-taking, use vocabulary section in textbooks, listen to tape of word lists, put L2 labels on physical objects, keep vocabulary notebook.

CONS-MET : use L2 media, testing oneself with word tests, use spaced word practice, skip/pass new word, continue to study word over time.

Another investigation of vocabulary learning strategies as a whole was conducted by Stoffer (1995), who developed a Vocabulary Learning Strategy Inventory (VLSI) containing slightly fewer items than Schmitt’s taxonomy. Stoffer clustered Vocabulary Learning Strategies into nine categories:

• strategies involving authentic language use
• strategies used for self-motivation
• strategies used for organize words
• strategies used to create mental linkages
• memory strategies
• strategies involving creative activities
• strategies involving physical action
• strategies used to overcome anxiety
• auditory strategies

Other notable classification scheme has been proposed by Nation (2001:218). Presenting this division, he intended to separate the aspects of vocabulary knowledge from the sources of vocabulary knowledge and from learning processes. Nation (2001:218) categorized vocabulary learning strategies into three general classes:

Planning : choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it.

• choosing words
• choosing the aspects of word knowledge
• choosing strategies
• planning repetition

Sources : finding information about words.

• analyzing the word
• using context
• consulting a reference source in L1 and L2
• using parallels in L1 and L2

Processes : establishing knowledge.

• noticing
• retrieving
• generating

Finally, Gu and Johnson (1996) created a taxonomy on the basis of the responses to their self-reporting questionnaire. The researchers identified six types of strategy (1996:650-651):

Guessing strategies .

• Using background knowledge/wider context.
• Using linguistic cues/immediate context.

Dictionary strategies .

• Dictionary strategies for comprehension.
• Extended dictionary strategies.
• Looking-up strategies.

Note-taking strategies .

• Meaning-oriented note-taking strategies.
• Usage-oriented note-taking strategies.

Rehearsal strategies .

• Using word lists.
• Oral repetition.
• Visual repetition.

Encoding strategies .

• Association/Elaboration.
• Imagery.
• Visual encoding.
• Auditory encoding.
• Using word-structure.
• Semantic encoding.
• Contextual encoding.

Activation strategies

Memorising lists of facts by linking them to familiar words or numbers by means of an image.

Remembering lists by picturing them In specific locations.

Establishing an acoustic and image link between an L2 word to be learned and a word in L2 that sounds similar.

“Vocabulary is central to language and of critical importance to the typical language learner” (Zimmerman 1997:5). Lack of vocabulary knowledge will result in lack of meaningful communication.

The main benefit that can be obtained from all learning strategies is autonomy, students can take charge of their own learning (Nation, 2001:222) and gain independence and self-direction.

Nation (2001:222) believes that a large amount of vocabulary can be acquired with the help of vocabulary learning strategies and that the strategies prove useful for students of different language levels.

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001:107-108) also acknowledges the role of learning strategies (study skills).

Individual learner differences: age, learning style, personality type, motivation.

• Age: young children tend to use strategies in task specific manner, whereas older ones use generalized and more sophisticated strategies (O’Malley and Chamot 1990).
• Learning style: according to Oxford (1989), general approach to language learning determines the choice of L2 learning strategies. For example analytic learners prefer strategies such as contrastive analysis and discerning words and phrases, whereas global students use strategies to find meaning: guessing, scanning, predicting and to converse without knowing all the words: paraphrasing, gesturing.
• Personality type: Erhman (1990) suggests that each personality type is associated with ‘assets’ and ‘liabilities’ where language learning is concerned. For example, extroverts are assigned to have willingness to take risks (an asset) but with dependency on external stimulation and interaction (a liability). Another finding mentioned by Erhman was that introverts showed greater use of strategies involving searching for and communicating meaning than did extroverts. Other result reported by Erhman and Oxford is that ‘feeling’ revealed using general study strategies to a greater extent than ‘thinking’.
• Motivation: Oxford and Nyikos (1989) found that “highly motivated learners used more strategies relating to formal practice, functional practice, general study, and conversation/input elicitation than poorly motivated learners” (Ellis 1994:542). The particular reason for studying the language: motivational orientation, especially as related to career field was also important in the choice of strategies.

Situational and social factors: learning setting, type of task, gender.

• Gender: On the basis of Oxford and Nyikos (1989) and Erhman (1990) research, females reported greater overall strategy use than males in many studies. Although sometimes males surpassed females in the use of a particular strategy.
• Type of task: The specification of the task may help learners in using particular strategies, but cannot predetermine the actual strategies that will be used.

Learning setting: Scholars (Ellis 1994) have pointed out a number of differences in the usage of learning strategies in a classroom and in more natural setting. Studies of classroom strategies by Chamot (1988) showed that social and affective strategies were used infrequently by adults, excluding ‘questioning for clarification’. However, Wong-Filmore (1976;1979) reported frequent use of social strategies by young learners in a play situation.

Nation (2001), instead of providing a clear-cut definition of vocabulary learning strategies, has opted for listing their characteristics. According to Nation (Nation 2001:217), a strategy must :

• involve choice, i.e. there should be several strategies to choose from;
• be complex, i.e. there should be several steps to learn;
• require knowledge and benefit from training;
• increase the efficiency of vocabulary learning and vocabulary use;

The process of noticing involves learner’s detection of a given word and marking it as an unknown. A crucial point, however, is that the learner at the same time realizes she/he has come across the word before, but it was used differently, and most importantly the learner becomes familiarized with a new context, as well as he/she wishes to learn a particular word. Moreover, the learner will tend to decontextualize the word the moment she/he notices it, which in turn will provide foundation for better understanding of the word.

The process of decontextualization takes place either consciously or subconsciously in a variety of ways. For instance, it occurs while listening or reading exercises, when the teacher highlights a particular word, while negotiating meaning in speaking exercises, or when the teacher provides learners with an explanation of the word, be it translation, giving a synonym, or target language definition.

When it comes to the negotiation of meaning in speaking exercises, its role cannot be neglected since such exercises result in better memorization of the word. In addition, not only do the students directly engaged in the exercise learn the word, but also those who are passively observing the meaning negotiation process. What is more, such exercises may be of a great usefulness for both small and large groups of students.

While the noticing directs the learner toward learning the word, the retrieval, the second process of vocabulary acquisition distinguished by Nation, reinforces the meaning of the word in the learner’s mind. The more frequent the retrieval of a particular item in a learning process, the greater the chances that the item will strike deeper in the learner’s memory. Thus, repetition and retrieval of the word extend its meaning, or definition, and repetitive exposure to and use of it will lead the learner to understanding of each meaning of the word he/she encounters.

Nevertheless, the span of time between encounters cannot be too long. If the learner is not able to recall encountering the word in the past, she/he finds herself/himself at the initial stage of the learning process. Nation states:

It is very useful to try to estimate how much listening and reading a learner would need to be doing per week in order for incidental receptive vocabulary learning to proceed in an effective way (…) On average learners would need to listen to stories at least three times a week for about fifteen minutes each time. They would need to read about one graded reader every two weeks (Nation 2001:68).

The last process of vocabulary acquisition in Nation’s classification is that of the creative or generative use. It takes place when “previously met words are subsequently met or used in ways that differ from the previous meeting with the word” (Nation 2001:x). Those new encounters push learners toward reconceptualization of their knowledge of these words.

Generative use has its receptive and productive realization. Receptive generative use occurs when a particular word is encountered in reading or listening, and has slightly different meaning, but as well may be productive, when the learner is not familiar with that particular meaning of the word yet.

There are also several degrees of generation, present when strengtheners are added to a word, e.g. very deep, heavy rain, etc.

• knowing the degree of probability of encountering the word in speech or print;
• knowing the limitations imposed on the use of the word according to function and situation;
• knowing the syntactic behavior associated with the word;
• knowing the underlying form of a word and the derivations that can be made of it;
• knowing the associations between the word and other words in the language;
• knowing the semantic value of the word ; and
• knowing many of the different meanings associated with the word.

Further writings which have extensively elaborated on the subject include works by Cohen (1986), Gass (1989), Read (1989), all of whom have a similar view to Richards’. Nation (1990), lists eight types of word knowledge, each for receptive and productive skills, giving a total of sixteen different subcomponents.

Management and Planning Strategies are associated with the learner’s intention to direct his own learning. A learner can supervise the expansion of his own learning scheme guided by teacher, who plays a role of adviser and resourcer. That is to say that the learner must ( Stern 1992:263):

• decide what commitment to make to language learning
• set himself reasonable goals
• decide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, and monitor progress
• evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined goals and expectations

Cognitive strategies are sets or operations in learning requiring synthesis of learning materials, direct analysis or transformations:

• clarification/verification
• guessing/inductive inferencing
• deductive reasoning
• practice
• memorization
• monitoring

Communicative – Experiential strategies are techniques used by learners to sustain conversation and avoid interrupting the flow of communication. Stern subdivided Communicative Strategies into: circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrase, or asking for repetition and explanation.

Interpersonal strategies.

The aim of using Interpersonal strategies is to monitor by students their development and evaluate performance by contact and cooperation with native speakers.

Affective strategies.

It has been evidenced that language learning can be frustrating in many ways and language learners are more or less conscious of these emotional problems. Good language learner should try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language and overcome emotional difficulties by drawing attention and pointing them out as they arise.

Meta-cognitive strategies are strategies which involve “knowing about learning, and controlling learning through planning, monitoring and evaluating the learning activity”(O’Malley 1988:422). Among the main meta-cognitive strategies, it is possible to include advance organizers, directed attention, selective attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, self-evaluation.

Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve the manipulation or transformation of the material to be learned. Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing are among the most important cognitive strategies.

Socio-affective strategies , it can be stated that they are related with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question for clarification are the main socio-affective strategies (Brown 1987:93-94).

• memory – help students store and retrieve information;
• cognitive –enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means;
• compensation –allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge;
• meta-cognitive – allow learners to control their own cognition;
• affective –help to regulate emotions, motivations and attitudes;
• social strategies – involve learning by interaction with others

which are subdivided into a total of 19 strategy sets and the whole strategy system incorporates 62 strategies.

Direct strategies directly involve the target language such as reviewing and practicing:

Memory Strategies.

• Creating mental linkages.
• Applying images and sounds.
• Reviewing well.
• Employing action.

Cognitive Strategies.

• Practicing

• Receiving and sending messages strategies.

• Analyzing and reasoning.

• Creating structure for input and output.

Compensation strategies.

• Guessing intelligently.

• Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing.

Indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning such as planning, co-operating and seeking opportunities:
Meta-cognitive Strategies

• Centering your learning.
• Arranging and planning your learning.
• Evaluating your learning.

Affective Strategies.

• Lowering your anxiety.
• Encouraging yourself.
• Taking your emotional temperature.

Social Strategies.

• Asking questions.
• Cooperating with others.
• Empathizing with others